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ARMINIANISM Within the European reformed Protestant tradition, two major viewpoints developed: Arminianism and Calvinism. Arminianism is the viewpoint, named after the Dutch theologian Jacob Arminius (1560–1609), that emphasizes that Jesus died for all mankind (a universal atonement), and that salvation depends upon a human decision to accept or reject God’s gift. In this system, since salvation depends on human choice, so does eternal security; that is, a person can lose his or her salvation. The theology of John Wesley and his followers is considered Arminian. Finney, though from the Calvinistic tradition, held ideas that are considered Arminian; therefore he was criticized by many of his fellow Presbyterians and Congregationalists, many of whom were staunch Calvinists. Many see Finney as an example of the trend in New England Calvinism toward Arminian ideas, and view his revival techniques (called the “new measures”) as evangelistic practices that emphasized human decision in salvation—an Arminian emphasis which is the norm in modern evangelistic revivals. Finney called for decisions on the spot and taught that salvation could be lost. Protestant doctrinal positions all fall within these two limits, or are attempts at finding a compromise between them. Both views claim to most accurately represent biblical teaching. Though many accusations have been made against Arminian theology by Calvinists, implying that it allows humans to overrule God, it can be seen as an attempt to protect the value of human responsibility.

CALVINISM This is the teaching that is based upon the theology of the Protestant reformer John Calvin. In this system, God’s sovereignty is foremost even in personal salvation. Jesus died on the cross for the salvation of only the elect—those whom God had predestined for eternal life (a definite, or particular atonement). Salvation depends upon predestination, not human decision, though human decision has its necessary place in the process. Since God ordained the salvation of individuals, they cannot fall from salvation. The so-called five points of Calvinism were actually responses drawn up in Holland at the Synod of Dort in 1618–1619 to oppose five points put forth first by Jacob Arminius (see above). Generally, those traditions called reformed, other than Lutherans, have been Calvinistic. The Huguenots from France and the English Puritans (and therefore the early settlers of New England) were Calvinists. Notable Calvinists have included the Baptist John Bunyan, the Anglican George Whitefield, the Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards, and the early 20th-century prime minister of the Netherlands, Abraham Kuyper. Finney was a descendent of the American Calvinist tradition, and was criticized for distorting it. He rejected the notion of personal predestination to salvation, and emphasized the role of the human will. Though Calvinism is often criticized for eliminating the place of human responsibility in salvation, making God out to be a tyrant, Calvinists have generally considered the relation between God’s predestination and human choice to be a mystery, and have not wanted to neglect the role of personal decision.

NEW MEASURES Methods used by Finney in his revivals that caused controversy. They included using “anxious benches” at the front of the church for singling out those under special conviction; informal public praying, which was considered disrespectful; protracted meetings, which were regular meetings, maybe for months, and which some felt disturbed the church order and undermined the local pastor; and allowing women to pray in public meetings in mixed company with men. It’s important to keep in mind that these were disturbing in Finney’s day because they were viewed as biblically unwarranted gimmicks and innovations. Certain of these techniques were seen as disruptive to dignified worship, and as emphasizing human choice and emotionalism.

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