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Lactantius (240—320 A.D.) proves to be a transitional figure in the Christian understanding of pacifism and war. In his Institutes, written in the last days of Roman persecution from 304-311, he condemns war and military service: "It is not right for a just man to serve in the army since justice itself is his form of service. … It does not matter whether you kill a man with the sword or with a word since it is killing itself that is prohibited. And so there must be no exception to this command of God. Killing a human being whom God wills to be inviolable, is always wrong" (Divine Institutes 6.20.16-17). However, when he writes his Epitome to the Institutes after Constantine came to power, fighting and killing are no longer always wrong: "Courage is good if you are fighting for your country, but it is evil if you are fighting against your country"(Epitome 61.3). He even has further hope for a similar liberation of other repressed peoples even as the Christians had been liberated by Constantine: "On those who continue to afflict the just in other parts of the world that same omnipotent Father will wreak vengeance for their wrong doing (Divine Institutes 1.1.14).

The Constantinian era brought about a change. Previously marginalized Christians were now involved in affairs of state. Though there were many Christian soldiers before the time of Constantine, it wasn't until previously marginalized Christians became involved in the affairs of state that the church fathers began nuancing their opposition to military action. The issue then became how one could remain a Christian when the demands of the state required use of force to combat evil or prevent injury. This caused Athanasius (296-373 A.D.) to make a distinction between murder and warfare in the fifth commandment's prohibition against killing: "One is not supposed to kill, but killing the enemy in battle is both lawful and praiseworthy. For this reason individuals who have distinguished themselves in war are considered worthy of great honors, and monuments are put up to celebrate their accomplishments. Thus, at one particular time, and under one set of circumstances, an act is not permitted, but when the time and conditions are right, it is both allowed and condoned" (Letter to Amun, PG 26:1173).

Ambrose , who himself had been in public service before becoming a bishop, praises the courage of the soldier who "protects one's country from destruction [rather] than protecting oneself from danger, and that exerting oneself for one's country is much superior to leading a peaceful life of leisure with all the pleasures it involves (On the Duties of the Clergy 3.3.23). "The kind of courage which is involved in defending the empire against barbarians, or protecting the weak on the home front or allies against plunderers is wholly just" (On the Duties of the Clergy 1.27.129).

Having received baptism from Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) also continues many of the distinctions spoken of previously, adding further clarifications that would become normative for the Christian tradition which followed. He speaks of the proper motivation for war in a letter to the Roman general Boniface: "Peace should be your aim; war should be a matter of necessity so that God might free you from necessity and preserve you in peace. One does not pursue peace in order to wage war; he wages war to achieve peace. And so, even in the act of waging war be careful to maintain a peaceful disposition so that by defeating your foes you can bring them the benefits of peace. 'Blessed are the peacemakers,' says the Lord, 'for they will be called the sons of God' (Matt. 5:9)" (Letter 189.6). It is also important that the proper authorities carry out the war: "It makes a difference for what reasons and under whose authority men undertake wars that are to be waged. The natural order of things, which is designed for the peace of mankind, requires that the authority for waging war, and the planning of it, rest with the chief of state. Soldiers, in turn, for the sake of the peace and safety of all are obliged to carry out a war that has been decided on (Against Faustus 22.75). If possible, it is better to "prevent war through persuasion and seek or attain peace through peaceful means rather than through war" (Letter 229.2). In the end, however, it is the "wrongdoing of the other side [that] forces the wise man to wage just wars" (City of God 19.7).

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October (Web-only) 2003, Vol. 47