Germany
In Germay the centuries-old tradition of church government by secular princes survived until 1918, when the individual territorial churches adopted their own constitutions. Before this time, moves towards unity had resulted in the establishment of the Committee of the German Evangelical Churches in 1903, but a closer bond was made in May 1922 with the formation of the Federation of German Evangelical Churches, with a permanent office in Berlin. (“Evangelical” in the German context usually signifies the indigenous non-Roman churches.) The confessional status of the various constituent bodies (Lutheran, Reformed, Union) was untouched, but from this time the Federation represented all of them in common affairs, such as overseas work.
By 1933 the tendency towards unity became stronger, partly under the pressure of the so-called “German Christian” movement and the Nazi government, and this led in that year to the constitution of the German Evangelical Church. The encroachments of the Nazis on the confession of the churches soon resulted, however, in what was described as the Struggle of the Church (Kirchenkampf), in the course of which such fellowship as had been achieved was virtually destroyed.
After the German defeat in 1945 it was found necessary to begin anew, and a conference was called at Treysa, with the aim of reorganizing the whole church which was renamed the Evangelical Church in Germany (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland=EKD). This is, strictly speaking, a federation of churches rather than a church, and has no confession of its own. It is regarded as the realization of a fellowship between the two Reformation churches (Lutheran and Reformed), not easily expressed in legal terms, but closer than the usual relationship between these two bodies in other parts of the world, and stronger because of the period of trial and persecution during World War II. Theological and ecclesiastical problems still arise, particularly in connection with such subjects as intercommunion and mutual eligibility of ministers, and though it has not solved them, the united church has learned to live with such questions.
On a broader scale EKD is a member of the loosely organized Cooperative Fellowship of Christian Churches in Germany—an organization similar to the ecumenical National Councils. Other members of this body are Baptists, Open Brethren and some Elim churches (which three groups are united in the Federation of Evangelical Free Congregations), the Evangelical Fellowship, The Methodist Church, the Old Catholic Church, the Mennonites and the Moravian Church. EKD is also a member of the World Council of Churches; its member churches belong partly to the Lutheran World Federation, partly to the Presbyterian World Alliance.
According to the census of 1950 (the latest available), in a total population in the Federal Republic of some 48½ million, just over 24½ million were members of the various Evangelical churches or other non-Roman Christian groups; 22¼ million were Roman Catholics; 94,000 professed other religions (including Jews, whose numbers dropped astronomically and tragically under the Nazi regime); and rather more than 1½ million were members of other groups or professed no religious affiliation. To these should be added the respective figures for West Berlin (population over two million): more than 1½ million Evangelical Christians; less than ¼ million Roman Catholics; 8,000 of non-Christian religions; and 327,000 others.
There are danger signs in the Federal Republic, with many reacting strongly against what they regard as an increasingly dictatorial ecclesiastical system characterized by a barren orthodoxy. In some areas the complaint is made that the younger clergy especially are “removed from life” and are failing to speak to the condition of the people, and this is having its inevitable effect. It is estimated that the number of Unitarians has increased alarmingly (to 100,000), particularly in Schleswig-Holstein, and great success is claimed also for the efforts of organized atheism.
Yet true evangelical preaching is meeting with its customary response. In 1954 a single Billy Graham meeting brought out 25,000 in Düsseldorf, 80,000 in Berlin. In 1955 similar meetings in Mannheim, Stuttgart, Nuremberg, Dortmund and Frankfurt had attendances varying from 25,000 to 60,000. In 1960 three one-week crusades in Essen, Hamburg and Berlin were attended by crowds averaging about 25,000 to 30,000 each night for the entire period. The final meeting in Berlin brought an attendance of 100,000. Bishop Otto Dibelius wrote a letter to his entire clergy urging them to participate in these meetings; Bishop Hans Lilje appeared on the platform and spoke most enthusiastically about the whole venture.
In all of these efforts the original invitation to the Graham team came from relatively small evangelical groups, but with growing support from the broader church in Germany. For a return visit in 1963, the Evangelical Alliance is again extending the invitation; this time, however, with the cooperation of the German Conference of Bishops and other church leaders. Meetings will be held for one week each in Stuttgart and Nuremberg, with a two-day visit to Berlin. It is expected that by that time German-language versions of “The Heart is a Rebel” and “Africa on the Bridge” will be available. Dr. Graham has said that he finds the response to the preaching of the Gospel in Germany greater than that in almost any other place in the world.
J. D. DOUGLAS
[Some of the background material for the essay on Germany has been used by permission from Dr. Heinz Burnotte, author of the book Die Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland.]
Austria
In 1952 the Lutheran and Reformed Church of Austria still included those parts of the former monarchy which since 1918 belong to Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Italy. In 1945 some of them became part of Russia. 169,208 of the 588,686 church members were geographically within the present Austria. 28 congregations with 37,000 members were added in 1921 when German-speaking Burgenland became part of Austria.
Resistance against political Catholicism and the Catholic marriage laws caused many conversions. By 1938 the number of members had increased to 342,308.
Between 1938 and 1945 41,000 left the church under Nazi pressure. This cleansed and purified the church. After 1945 political ambitions of the church yielded first place to a stronger faith in Christ in Protestant terms. 55,000 refugees from southeastern Europe increased the number of members. 65,000 other people had joined by 1961, while 30,000 dropped out. Today the Protestant Church has 420,000 members, 405,000 of which are Lutherans organized in 160 congregations and six superintendencies, while 15,000 in eight congregations belong to the Reformed Church. 230 ministers and 400 religion teachers serve the 800 preaching stations and 4,500 places of religious instruction. Since 1947 the growing church had to build 78 churches and 56 church centers. The theological department of the University of Vienna and two special schools train the ministers and female church workers. The church administers hospitals; homes for children, youth and old people; nursing and convalescent homes; two university extentions; an academy; a teacher’s college; and three schools.
In 1949 the Church got a new constitution which in 1961 was supplemented by the state “law on the external legal status of the Protestant Church” which grants complete autonomy regarding jurisdiction, direction and management as well as an equal status with the other officially approved churches.
D. GERHARD MAY
[Bishop May is the Bishop of the Evangelical Church Augsburgian Confession (Lutheran Church) in Austria, and President of the Evangelical Executive Church Council Augsburgian and Helvetic Confession in Austria. He has served in this position since September 1944. He is a graduate of Vienna, Halle, and Basel Universities and holds the Th.D. from Heidelberg.]
Netherlands
In 1959 a test census covering 10,000 families out of the country’s total population of some 11 ½ million gave what is considered a reasonably accurate indication of religious affiliation. The statistics showed the Roman Catholic Church with 40 per cent; Dutch Reformed 29 per cent; Free Reformed 9 per cent; other groups 4 per cent; and those with no religious tie 18 per cent.
Still seen among Protestants is the influence of men like Groen van Prinsterer and Abraham Kuyper who were associated last century with the old Calvinist traditions: notably those concerning spiritual theocracy, devotion, emphasis on church order, and confessional loyalty. Thus in the Netherlands the Revival movement was directed along ecclesiastical lines. An opportunity was given to the laity to make their contribution to the spread of the Gospel in Christian organizations within such fields as education, workmen’s unions, newspapers, charitable bodies, academic circles, and (latterly) broadcasting and television.
Since 1940 the Dutch Reformed Church (Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk) has known a significant recovery. Before that time it was primarily an administrative union which gave responsibility for preaching the Word to local congregations. During and after World War II the church, under the influence of Karl Barth and of those elements in the Reformed tradition not associated with Kuyper and his colleagues, revealed itself as a Christ-confession, assuming responsibility for preaching and pastoral care of the people, in obedience to Holy Scripture and in close connection with the historic creeds of the Reformed Church.
In Dutch Christianity generally the following tendencies are at present noticeable: A desire for ecumenicity; a new emphasis on the understanding of the Bible (in 1952 there was a new Protestant Bible translation; in 1961 a new Roman Catholic translation); in theology an attempt to keep the best elements of the dogmatic tradition in a continuing confrontation with responsible exegesis; a liturgical movement which will serve the exercise of devotion. Over all there is a tendency for Christianity to become dogmatic, certainly less rationalistic, and more biblical and personal, and often service-and missionary-minded. Together with all this there is apparent a greater receptivity for that which is experimental.
Smaller churches which are not indigenous have had relatively little influence in the Netherlands; similarly with sects such as Jehovah’s Witnesses and Mormons. One poignant reminder of recent history concerns the number of Jews: 106,409 in 1909, but only 14,346 in 1947. One possible reason for the comparatively small inroads made by “international” churches in the country is that they are not easily oriented into the general pattern of Dutch Protestant Christianity, in which there is always a seeking for harmony between ecclesiastical institutionalism and spiritual power.
R. SCHIPPERS
[R. Schippers is Professor of New Testament in the Free Reformed University of Amsterdam, which awarded him the D.Th. degree in 1938.]
Switzerland
That the German-speaking section of Switzerland could produce the two most influential theologians of their generation is evidence of a vitality in the churches. However, the theology of Karl Barth of the University of Basel, and Emil Brunner of the University of Zürich, has not yet led to a revival of Christian devotion among the people. Church membership for many Protestants means little more than the payment of taxes to support the Reformed Church of their canton. There is little opposition to the church, and it plays an important role in the life of the nation; the problem is lack of widespread personal concern about Christianity, a problem which is inherent in the Volkskirche (people’s church) today.
Some 2,857,600 of Switzerland’s 5,429,100 inhabitants are Protestants. As the Italian-speaking section of the country is almost wholly Roman Catholic, Protestant strength lies in the other areas, though some sections of these also are largely Roman Catholic. In the most populous Swiss canton, Zürich (927,000), 65 per cent are Protestants and 32.4 per cent Catholics. But only 2.6 per cent were Catholics in 1850, 21.7 per cent in 1930, 24.9 per cent in 1950. Part of this growth is attributable to the influx of Italian workmen, but among the Swiss themselves the Catholic proportion has increased from 22.2 per cent in 1950 to 25.8 per cent in 1960. In the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, as indeed in other Protestant countries, Catholicism is gaining strength fast.
Each canton is free to regulate its own religious affairs, except that the federal constitution guarantees religious freedom. In some cantons the Reformed Church receives state support; in others the Catholic Church is the official one; and in still others both are supported financially by the government, or neither is. Free churches are gaining respect, but their membership is small. Baptists, for example, have gained less than 400 new members in 40 years, and now number about 1,500. Methodists and some others are larger. The Reformed Church of Zürich reports that for several years its greatest losses have been to the New Apostolic Church which claims a reestablishment of the apostleship in preparation for the end of time.
Protestantism has contributed much to the character of the Swiss people and the culture of the nation. Through Zwingli, the Anabaptists and other leaders of the past and present, Switzerland has had an influence far out of proportion to its size. Still vigorous but losing ground, Swiss Protestantism faces the challenge of making the Gospel relevant to more than a small minority of the population.
J. D. HUGHEY
[J. D. Hughey is President of the (international) Baptist Theological Seminary of Rüschlikon, Switzerland. He has been a member of the faculty since 1952 and teaches church history. He holds the A.B. degree from Furman University, Th.M. from Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, and M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from Columbia University.]
The Crisis On The Continent
A CRITICAL SITUATION—We see European civilization breaking up into anarchy before our eyes, because the economic, social, and political forces have developed freely without regard for one another. The traditional values of civilization are no longer moulding civilization today; they are no longer taken into account. There is, therefore, a serious lack of balance, and we have reached a definite crisis.—JACQUES ELLUL, professor in the faculty of law, Bordeaux, from the report of the First Assembly of the World Council of Churches.
UPHEAVAL IN HISTORY-Conventional notions of private and public morality have been steadily atrophied in the last ten or fifteen years by the exposure of treason in government, corruption in labor and business, scandals among the mighty.… Orthodox religion’s conception of good and evil seem increasingly inadequate to explain a world of science fiction turned fact, past enemies turned bosom friends, and honorable diplomacy turned brink of war.—J. C. HOLMES, “The Philosophy of the Beat Generation,” Esquire Magazine.
THE TURN IN FRANCE—What is truly new today is that there is a new religion. In a few words, it is the general feeling that no one is really healthy without a fully developed sex life.—Time, quoting from France’s Esprit.
UNCONCERN IN SWITZERLAND—Everywhere too one saw the church existing, but saw no evidence of its existing significantly. Symptoms were most unmistakable in southern Italy, where crime, immorality and human degradation swarmed horribly around a church which seemed blind alike to their presence and their tragic implications. But it was in Switzerland that a loyal churchwoman responded to my disturbance about an instance of abject but removable poverty with an assurance which only increased my perturbation: “You should not feel that way about it. It is not sad at all! These people are not being deprived of what they need. They do not go hungry. They steal.”—Dr. ROY PEARSON, Dean of Andover Newton Theological School, in a report to The Christian Century (June 14, 1961).
DECLINE IN ENGLAND—Prosperity and righteousness do not go hand in hand. As material standards climb ever higher, moral standards are on the decline. Crimes of violence are on the increase; juvenile delinquency, the break up of home life, mental sickness all plague the community and present bewildering problems to the State.… There is no reason to believe that this decline is likely to be halted, unless disaster overtakes us, or revival rescues us.—TALBOT MOHAN, “The Situation in England Today” from The Churchman.
MORAL NEEDS IN SPAIN—There remains a grave need for human and moral reforms. Human relationships are often still poor. Often the economically weak resent a lack of understanding, of human cooperation, of confidence, of interest in family and factory relationships, more than they resent a low wage. Many can—and willingly do—reject any salary, high or low, to show their resentment against incorrect treatment.—Commerce Minister of Spain Ullastres, discussing the miner’s strike at Barcellona, New York Times Magazine (July 1).
SOVIET PRESSURE—The largest Baptist Church in Riga, known as the Hagensburg Church, has been converted by the Soviet Russians into a TV studio and production center.… Already in 1940 when Latvia was annexed by the Soviets this Baptist congregation was compelled to cede the building to the State; but they were permitted to use it until 1961. Only three of the eight Baptist churches in Riga remain open for divine worship, the Alliance says. When the Russians in 1940 occupied Latvia there were 104 Baptist churches with a total membership of 11,000. Although many churches in the meantime have been forced to close, the membership of the Baptist churches during the last years, despite persecution and repression from the Communists, has increased.—The Gospel Call.
