Christian Commitment In Scholarship
Reason Within the Bounds of Religion, by Nicholas Wollerstorff (Eerdmans, 1976, 115 pp., $2.45 pb), is reviewed by George I. Mavrodes, professor of philosophy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
In my opinion this short book was one of the most significant works of Christian scholarship published in 1976. Wolterstorff’s theses are provocative, and many Christian readers will find some of them unsettling. But I believe they will repay careful consideration and reaction. Perhaps they will even provoke some emendation and improvement, and that too would be a valuable contribution.
The author is a Calvin College philosopher, but his book is addressed to Christian scholars in all the academic disciplines (which Wolterstorff loosely calls the “sciences”). His principal thesis is that Christian scholars in all fields—the hard sciences, theology, the social sciences, the humanities, and others—should make full and unabashed use of the belief content (propositional) of their Christian commitment in their scholarly work. According to Wolterstorff, Christian scholars have characteristically related their science to their commitment in three ways: (1) they have revised their commitment to harmonize with what they took to be scientific results; (2) they have tried to place scientific results and theories in a larger context supplied by Christian theology; and (3) they have tried to find Christian applications for scientific and scholarly results.
Without completely rejecting these avenues, Wolterstorff argues for seeking a more “internal” relation. Christian commitment, he argues, will include some beliefs that will function as data relative to some scientific theories, and these data will be inconsistent with some of these theories. In that case, a Christian scholar (if he is doing his scholarly work coherently with the basic commitments of his life) will reject those theories on the basis of the data. More importantly, however, Christian commitment will include beliefs that, while not themselves functioning as data, will determine what we take to be genuine data. And such commitment will also include what Wolterstorff calls “control” beliefs, beliefs that determine what sort of theories, explanations, and so on are to be counted as live candidates for acceptance, and which are to be ruled out from the very beginning as nonstarters. All academic work, according to Wolterstorff, is done under the influence of such beliefs; and the Christian, if he is to proceed coherently, should allow his own commitment to function in this way.
Wolterstorff, however, does not believe that a Christian can normally derive his scholarly position from his Christian commitment. Sometimes he will be in a position to rule out a theory at the start because it falls afoul of his control beliefs (Wolterstorff suggests, for example, that Christians can rule out some behavioristic and deterministic psychological theories because they have a control belief that human beings are free to accept or reject their responsibilities). Sometimes he may reject a theory on the basis of data supplied by his Christian commitment. Usually, however, there will still be room for different theories, and the Christian will have to choose among them on some other basis. He must, like the non-Christian, do his research—he, too, must observe the world, then reflect on his observations and reason about them.
While Christian commitment does not supply one with a “black book” of scientific theories, Wolterstorff believes that it may serve to suggest some plausible theories, theories worth following up. Wolterstorff strongly urges Christian scholars to address themselves to the formulation of theories that yield programs for research and investigation. In that way the Christian will be making a special contribution to the advancement of the sciences on the basis of his Christian commitment.
Much traditional philosophy of science and epistemology has held that the edifice of human knowledge should be erected by careful logical procedures beginning with a foundation of certainties. Many recent thinkers have attempted to find this stock of certainties in a set of propositions that describe or report sense experiences, or some such thing. Some of them, no doubt, would reject Wolterstorff’s argument, as I have outlined it so far, on the grounds that the Christian’s belief commitment is not based on certainties of that sort. Wolterstorff refers to this project of basing the sciences upon a foundation of certainties as “foundationalism.”
Wolterstorff agrees that the program he suggests for the Christian scholar does not conform to the ideal of foundationalism. But he rejects foundationalism itself, arguing basically that no scholar, either Christian or non-Christian, can proceed in the foundationalist way. He argues, for example, that inductive logic itself does not conform to the foundationalist ideal—it is not known indubitably to be correct. And even if it is accepted, he argues, one cannot proceed inductively from propositions about our own states of consciousness to propositions about independent entities. These arguments seem to me powerful, and many Christians may find them attractive.
They may find more unsettling, however, his claim that what might be called “biblical foundationalism” also fails, and for much the same sort of reason. In a chapter entitled “Will the Bible Save Foundationalism?” he argues that even if the Bible is infallible in the strongest sense it cannot provide us with a stock of indubitable certainties. For it to do this, we should also have to know somehow that the content of the presently available manuscripts had not been corrupted by transmissional errors, that the translations were accurate, that we were interpreting it correctly, and so on. And while we might know these things, we will not know them in the way required by biblical foundationalism; i.e., we will not find those propositions among the infallible propositions of the Bible. So here too foundationalism must fail.
Many Christians will find Wolterstorff’s position at this point unsettling. It is important that his claim be subjected to careful criticism and argument. If someone is inclined to engage in such a critical endeavor, I think it would be useful if he would do something like the following: First, select some proposition that it is thought we can know on a biblical basis, and state it clearly. Then formulate and state the full set of the things that must be true if the proposition is to be derivable from the Bible in the desired way. And finally, show how we are justified in believing, or taking for granted, that all those things are true. The second step of this program is likely to be surprisingly long, and some may despair of ever completing it. But if it cannot be completed, it is hard to see how biblical foundationalism can get off the ground. And if it is completed, there yet remains the third step. At any rate, it seems to me that any serious attempt to undertake this demonstration could hardly fail to advance our understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the foundationalist position.
I have described Wolterstorff’s thesis so far as if there were a one-way relation between one’s Christian commitment and his academic work. But Wolterstorff recognizes a two-way traffic. In a chapter on “The Impact of Theorizing on Commitment” he recognizes that sometimes our academic work results in a change in our commitment, and that sometimes this change is for the better. While the position that Wolterstorff holds here seems to me to be correct, his treatment of this topic seems to me to be the weakest part of the book. If my acceptance of a critical theory necessitates a change in my Christian commitment, then presumably the theory is inconsistent with, or at least does not comport well with, the previous version of my commitment. If I am proceeding as a Christian scholar, however, how do I ever come to accept such a theory in the first place, and so to revise my commitment? I agree with Wolterstorff that we sometimes do so, and that we are sometimes right in doing so. The previous discussion, however, seems to leave us no alternative to saying that this must be due to some inconsistency or incoherence on the part of the Christian scholar. It would be useful, I think, to have some better account of the matter. But that, perhaps, must be left for some other time.
Making Christian Disciples
The Dynamics of Personal Follow-up, by Gary W. Kuhne (Zondervan, 1976, 211 pp., $2.95 pb), is reviewed by Robert A. Case II, executive director, Christian Action Council, Washington, D.C.
In 1871 A. B. Bruce published his masterly volume on discipleship entitled The Training of the Twelve. Since then some counterparts to this monumental work have appeared, but the century-old Bruce volume is still the bench mark for works on discipleship in the Body of Christ.
However, having the bench mark does not mean we need to stop sighting for new levels of discipling proficiency. Gary Kuhne’s The Dynamics of Personal Follow-up is an orderly and systematic approach that any Christian can adopt (or adapt) to further his or her own discipling ministry. Kuhne writes out of his Campus Crusade for Christ background, and his book is pure, vintage Crusade material in both content and arrangement. While one can find fault with the theology (or lack of theology), one cannot find fault with the author’s clarity and harmony as he proposes a step-by-step method of follow-up.
The Christian Church is not exactly bereft of follow-up programs. One can turn to Kennedy (Evangelism Explosion), Bright (“Here’s Life America”); the Southern Baptists (WIN), or Chuck Miller’s conferences to get some training for a discipling ministry. However, each of these programs takes a certain degree of a priori commitment to the program and some ready cash. Kuhne lets you in on his program for a few dollars and a couple of hours of easy reading.
The first half of his program runs about 150 pages and covers the principles and general guidelines for effective follow-up. He has chapters such as “Developing a Meaningful Relationship with a New Believer” and “Dealing with Common Problems Encountered in Personal Follow-up.” No theologian or exegete, Kuhne nevertheless brings practical experience to bear on his methodology. Anyone who has ever tried to follow up a recent convert and had his or her ears pinned back by “the wily one” will appreciate another warrior’s testimony and help in this difficult area.
The second half of his program is an extremely helpful step-by-step schedule of follow-up appointments. This section, running about 50 pages, is so clear that a relatively new believer will easily be able to become a “multiplier” (the goal of discipleship, in the author’s opinion). Each follow-up appointment (there are ten in all) is broken down into five sections: objectives, review of previous appointments, the lesson, and a way of presenting the lesson, and the assignment. All in all, this is a commendable effort to put a follow-up ministry down where the non-professional can deal with it.
Inevitably some will discount Kuhne’s approach as superficial, too programmatic, or too technological. While there may be an element of truth in these criticisms, the response must be: “This man has given us his way of doing it. If you don’t approve of his method, let’s hear yours.”
Briefly Noted
PARENTING is a demanding occupation that can be very rewarding or very frustrating, and is often both. Norma Steven, a former missionary, reflects on What Kids Katch From Parents (Harvest House, 127 pp., $1.60 pb). Jacky Hertz must have learned something about parenting: she has thirteen children! A lot of them are grown, or else she probably couldn’t have found time to write The Christian Mother: A Mary-Martha Balance (Hawthorn, 162 pp., $6.95). We’re constantly told that families should have fun together, but how? For specific ideas see Good Times For Your Family by Wayne Rickerson (Regal, 160 pp., $2.95 pb). Since many parenting books focus on young children, it is good to have books such as Parent and Teenager: Living and Loving by Evelyn Millis Duvall (Broadman, 191 pp., $5.95). And when parents grow up, they still need help. That wise counselor Charlie Shedd is at it again with Grandparents (Doubleday, 141 pp., $6.95). A lot of photographs; not many words, but they’re gems. Gives harried parents something to look forward to: grandparenting!
CREATION is making a comeback. The perception of the universe as having been created by God pretty much as it is rather than having evolved over eons is back in prominence, at least in publishing. The following eight books take differing stances, but the authors all attempt to be true to the facts of both science and Scripture: Evolution or Creation? by Arthur Custance (Zondervan, 329 pp., $8.95); The First Genesis: A New Case for Creation by William Dankenbring (Triumph Publishing Co. [Box 292, Altadena, Cal. 91001], 359 pp., $8.95); The Creation Explanation by Robert Kofahl and Kelly Segraves, both of San Diego’s Creation-Science Research Center (Harold Shaw [Box 567, Wheaton, Ill. 60187], 255 pp., $7.95); Creation: A Scientist’s Choice by Zola Levitt, based on an interview with Michigan State professor of natural science John Moore (Victor, 131 pp., $2.25 pb); Creation Versus Evolution? Not Really! by William Schmeling, who holds to theistic evolution (Clayton Publishing House [Box 9258, St. Louis, Mo. 63117], 119 pp., $3.75 pb); A Double Minded Man by Kelly Segraves (Beta, 176 pp., $5.95, $2.95 pb); The Two-Taled [sic] Dinosaur: Why Science and Religion Conflict Over the Origin of Life by Gerald Wheeler, a Seventh-Day Adventist with an especially helpful approach and tone (Southern Publishing Association [Box 59, Nashville, Tenn. 37202], 224 pp., $5.95 pb); and The Creation-Evolution Controversy by veterinarian R. L. Wysong (Inquiry Press [Box 1766, E. Lansing, Mich. 48823], 455 pp., $15, $7.95 pb). A different kind of book is The Comparative Reception of Darwinism edited by Thomas Glick (University of Texas, 505 pp., $15). Early pro- and anti-evolution forces in several major countries are competently studied.
LEADERSHIP Increasing demands on their time and energies are making Christian leaders a ready market for books that give practical help. The Art of Management For Christian Leaders by Ted Engstrom and Edward Dayton (Word, 290 pp., $6.95) is a revised collection from their monthly Christian Leadership Letter, and The Making of a Christian Leader is by Ted Engstrom only (Zondervan, 214 pp., $6.95). Both men had a variety of leadership experiences before becoming associated with World Vision. The former book focuses on specific tasks, while the latter is on general principles and procedures. Management in the Church by Peter Rudge (McGraw-Hill [Maidenhead, Berkshire, England], 172 pp., £ 5.25 gives an Australian-British perspective. Nehemiah and the Dynamics of Effective Leadership by Cyril Barber (Loizeaux, 191 pp., $2.75 pb) is primarily a study of the Old Testament book with applications for leaders generally.
Necessarily anonymous. Letters From South Korea by T. K. (IDOC [145 E. 49 St., New York, N.Y. 10017], 428 pp., $8.95 pb) gives English readers documented evidence on the nature of the persecution—much of it aimed at Christians—engaged in by one of the “free” nations whose governments are staunchly supported by the United States.
Twenty-eight previously published writings from Asia, Africa, and Latin America are conveniently offered as Mission Trends No. 3: Third World Theologies edited by Gerald Anderson and Thomas Stransky (Eerdmans or Paulist, 254 pp., $3.45 pb).
TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION (TM) is a Hindu-based technique propagated in secular guise by disciples of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. If Christians expect freedom to evangelize in non-Christian lands, they certainly cannot object to religious propaganda, but unethical practices (such as concealing the Hindu underpinnings of TM) are fair game. Evangelical refutations of TM may be found in TM Wants You! by David Haddon and Vail Hamilton (Baker, 204 pp., $1.95 pb), The Transcendental Explosion by John Weldon and Zola Levitt (Harvest House, 218 pp., $2.95 pb), The Case Against TM in the Schools by John Patton (Baker, 100 pp., $1.45 pb), and Meditation That Transcends by Robert Lightner (Accent, 64 pp., $.95 pb). Well-known writers Charlie Shedd and Morton Kelsey give, respectively, lightweight and heavyweight Christian alternatives to TM in Getting Through to the Wonderful You (Revell, 128 pp., $4.95) and The Other Side of Silence (Paulist, 314 pp., $8.50, $5.95 pb). Group meditation for churches is a special emphasis in Christian Growth Through Meditation by Fay Conlee Oliver (Judson, 124 pp., $3.50 pb). A straightforward presentation of Meditation without explicit reference to TM is provided by Navigator leader Jim Downing (Navpress, 96 pp., $1.50 pb). If you want to consult a book by an unabashed proponent of TM, see Celebrating the Dawn by Robert Oates, Jr. (Putnam, 228 pp., $12.95) or TM and the Nature of Enlightenment by Anthony Campbell (Harper & Row, 223 pp., $1.95 pb).
University libraries and major seminaries should acquire Bibliographical Essays in Medieval Jewish Studies by Lawrence Berman et al. (KTAV [75 Varick St., New York, N.Y. 10013], 392 pp., $17.50). These are truly evaluative essays, not merely overwhelming lists.
A South African, Patrick Johnstone, has compiled a World Handbook For the World Christian (William Carey [533 Hermosa, South Pasadena, Cal. 91030], 233 pp., $4.95 pb). Country by country he briefly gives the kind of information found in almanacs but adds the distinctive of specific “points for prayer.” If used in connection with other aids it can be helpful to missions prayer-group leaders.
The Ministry Of Management
The Making of a Christian Leader, by Ted W. Engstrom (Zondervan, 1976, 208 pp., $6.95), is reviewed by Kenneth O. Gangel, president, Miami Christian College, Miami, Florida.
The books that successfully blend secular scholarship in managerial science with biblical sensitivity can be counted on one hand. With The Making of a Christian Leader Ted Engstrom forces us to open the other fist and release another finger. Eighteen easily readable but contentladen chapters followed by a helpful Scripture index reflect not only the wide experience of the author but the careful research of his editorial assistant, David Juroe.
One always finds it easy to review a book with which he agrees (and especially one that quotes segments of one’s own material). I stand clearly with the author in his commitment to a service mentality reflected in the leadership style of the New Testament, though we surely represent a minority in the face of the current evangelical enchantment with autocracy.
His treatment of the gift of administration is enhanced by a brief acknowledgment of huperetes, though I would have liked to have also some treatment of prohistemi as it relates to the difference or lack of difference between leadership and administration in Pauline theology. The chapter on leadership style is good, followed as it is by a chapter on “The Personality of the Leader.” The inseparability of these two components is obvious as one begins a serious study of Christian leadership.
There are some overlapping areas. For example, chapter eleven treats “Personal Traits and Leadership” while chapter eighteen deals with the “Marks of a Christian Leader.” These could have been blended into one chapter to avoid the effort at saying somewhat the same thing in a slightly different way.
Engstrom follows a classic Druckerian principle of emphasizing his own strength: the chapter on planning extends to almost thirty pages, more than three times the average chapter length. Its content is excellent and radiates the practicality of the administrator who has “been there.” My favorite chapter is the one dealing with the control of the operation. It contains in capsule form some common-sense management philosophy but is wrapped in the passion of New Testament patterns. Engstrom reminds us that “to be burdened for others means that a leader must have more than a superficial involvement with them. Probably the most important aspect of your leadership role is the manner in which you talk to, help, and relate to people. On principle, the leaders who should be most loving, caring, understanding, and redemptive are those who understand the Cross the best, for it was at Calvary that the supreme caring spirit and love was manifested by God to this hurting world.”
Condemnation Or Compassion?
The Other Side of Divorce, by Helen K. Hosier (Hawthorn, 1975, 198 pp., $1.95), The Hurt and Healing of Divorce, by Darlene Petri (Cook, 1976, 188 pp., $1.95), and By Death or Divorce, by Amy Ross Young (Accent, 1976, 151 pp., $2.95), are reviewed by Janice C. Walter, Livonia, Michigan.
One out of three marriages ends in divorce, and more and more Christians are a part of the divorce statistics. As Amy Young says, “divorce is a fact of life—of many lives—and our not liking it and the disapproval of all the theologians in the world, is not going to make it vanish.”
All three of these authors are divorced, and one has remarried. They talk at length about the stigma of divorce and the harsh treatment they have received from many evangelicals. It is time, they claim, for the evangelical community to meet divorce head on and change its legalistic and unloving attitude toward divorced persons.
Interestingly, all use the same incident, Jesus calming the storm as described in Mark 4:37–40, to describe their lives before and after divorce. None makes any excuses for herself, and all wholeheartedly agree that there is no such thing as an innocent party in divorce.
Hosier is especially vehement in her defense of divorce. Her writing reflects a deep-seated anger. She works hard to defend divorce on scriptural grounds, and many of her arguments are convincing. Many readers will agree with her that for two people to continue living together in a state of “undivorce” or “spiritual adultery” is foolish. However, she becomes so enthusiastic in her claims for what divorce can do for a person (“divorce, while it is painful and tragic, can lead to the ultimate rebirth of an individual, a new relationship with Christ, a closer walk, leaning on Him for direction …”) that some readers might be persuaded that divorce is just what they need! Her defense of remarriage, however, is very weak.
She does attempt to give suggestions on avoiding divorce. She interviewed many divorced Christians and found that in many cases they had married without consulting the Lord or heeding the warnings of parents or other elders.
There is a tremendous amount of “how to cope” guidance in these books, especially Young’s (which also deals with widowhood) and Petri’s. The authors stress how helpful it is to be busy and, if possible, to have rewarding and challenging employment so that there is indeed a reason for getting up in the morning.
I wish that at least one of these books were required reading for all single people, sixteen and up. Perhaps a look into the experience of divorce would counter any inclination they might have to marry without due thought, prayer, and counsel.
It was courageous of these women to share their heartaches and open old wounds in order to give the rest of us a better insight into divorce. Hosier’s haunting questions confronts us: “What do divorced people see when they look in your eyes—condemnation or God’s love?”
C. S. Lewis And Everyday Issues
C. S. Lewis: The Shape of His Faith and Thought, by Paul L. Holmer (Harper & Row, 116 pp., $6.95, $3.95 pb), is reviewed by Cheryl Forbes, assistant editor,CHRISTIANITY TODAY.
Simple, felicitous language is the window for ideas, whether in apologetics, criticism, history, or fiction. Such stylish writing often fools readers into thinking its ideas are easy, since the language is so clear and seems so effortless. But the more complex the thoughts, the more imperative that the writing be uncomplicated. C. S. Lewis called it writing in the vernacular—the real test of a writer. He passed it with honors.
Paul Holmer, a professor at Yale Divinity School, has a felicity of style also. He captures with it that nearly indefinable quality that made C. S. Lewis so unusual and innovative in several fields. Although Holmer’s style might make some readers think he has reduced Lewis to a few formulas, he has instead brought together some important and hitherto little-discussed ideas of Lewis in a compact, introductory package.
Holmer shows Lewis as an individual who eludes boxes and categories. He was neither fundamentalist nor liberal, new critic nor old. While Lewis recognized new trends and fads, he was not influenced or seduced by them. Holmer finds this wholesome individuality reflected most clearly in his understanding of human nature, which protected him from the temptations of trends. Unlike writers who ride causes, whip in hand, he maintained a universality: “A rare wisdom about people gives Lewis firsthand access both to morals and to Christian literature and thought. In turn, his writings have a way of fitting every reader too. I believe it is this comprehensive understanding that works so well for Lewis.” Unlike those who reduce ethics to sex or social action or war, he saw moral issues in every aspect of our lives.
Lewis presented situations that made his readers think about moral issues. Holmer calls this style “indirect communication,” and it kept Lewis from a moralizing or sermonizing tone. In his fiction, says Holmer, he “causes thoughts to exist in us.” In his apologetic work, “the argument does not begin to gather its force until the reader has realized something about himself.”
Holmer also touches on some of the important ideas Lewis emphasized—for example, metaphors are “logical necessities” not just “stylistic pirouettes” (writers ought to memorize that one); reason and emotion are not mutually exclusive; and morality involves both of those.
Lewis works on the daily issues of life, the basics, where we all are alike and yet paradoxically each is unique. He pleads—indirectly, remember—for an integrated personality. Theories did not interest him; how people lived, and why, did—a difference like that between savoir and connaître (see Lewis’s discussions in An Experiment in Criticism, Of Other Worlds, and The Personal Heresy; also important here, though not specifically about savoir and connaître, is A Study in Words). Holmer argues convincingly. He adds a great deal to the understanding of Lewis.
