Guide To Decision-Making
Responsible Freedom: Guidelines to Christian Action, by L. Harold DeWolf (Harper & Row, 1971, 366 pp., $10), is reviewed by Douglas J. Miller, associate professor of Christian ethics, Eastern Baptist Seminary, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
At this moment of history the most significant and far-reaching aim of man is his encounter with new forms of freedom. The emerging world consciousness is one of personal as well as socio-political liberation. The Christian has always been aware of the meaning and importance of freedom and liberation. Salvation entails precisely this type of existence. Moreover, the Christian speaks of having been liberated from the powers of this age, in order that he might perform acts of liberating love that will bring to light God’s hidden activity in history. The result of this Christlike activity is that all people will bend a knee to God, and earth will then be filled with his glory.
All of us might agree that this constitutes beautiful theology, and presumably most of us would earnestly attempt to pursue such goals. However, these theological affirmations are not without a rub. Performing Christlike actions of liberating love entails making decisions between conflicting stances and incompatible courses of action. How, then, is the Christian to decide which position or action to choose?
In Responsible Freedom, L. Harold DeWolf addresses himself to this question. His prime concern is to set forth the kinds of considerations involved in making decisions and performing acts that we would call morally praiseworthy or truly Christian. These he designates as “General Principles of Moral Decision.”
DeWolf can only be praised for taking on this task. Christians have always been told that they ought to love. However, the way they have carried out this grand exhortation has often been anything but satisfying. The alternatives that have been seriously embraced have been a Fletcherist semi-etherealism and a fundamentalist semi-legalism. DeWolf attempts to cut through these extremes in exploring the necessary and sufficient considerations of ethical decision-making. He contends that a Christian ethic must entail a dynamic tension between the individual’s freedom and his obedience to moral law. The result is a “freedom of lawful responsibility” that he calls responsible freedom.
From what grounds does DeWolf derive these General Principles? He maintains that they are created by “rational reflection on the common experiences of mankind, not by appeal to special revelation, biblical or other.” But this statement ought not to be misinterpreted. In contending that reason creates these principles, he is not slighting the importance of the biblical witness. Even though the General Principles are derived from reason, they are “coherently related” to the New Testament teaching. They are simply abstract and regulative principles of criticism, “aides to ethical evaluation.” The specific exhortations in the body of Christian Scripture and tradition “are of far greater importance to life” than these General Principles. One finds in the New Testament examples of how these abstract principles are concretely realized, and as DeWolf explicates each of the General Principles he points out its biblical parallels. The biblical teachings add flesh to a skeletal outline. Underlying all this is the view that Christian ethics implies a faith-filled reason as well as a reason-filled faith.
DeWolf catalogues sixteen General Principles he believes one ought to consider, implicitly or explicitly, in making any moral decision. Although he does not claim a complete chronicling, DeWolf does contend that this list is “the most defensible set of natural law principles of comparable generality thus far set forth in our time.” These principles may be arranged in a systematic order, he says, according to their level of abstractness. Thus following from the formal principle of consistency are certain principles of valuation, such as choosing values consistently and choosing values in light of foreseeable consequences. From these follow certain principles for the choice of the beneficiary of an action, such as the principle of altruism. Principles of community are also included; these entail the principle of cooperation and the principle of social devotion. From all these preceding principles are derived certain post-ethical principles such as the imperative to seek the source and ground of the moral order.
The balance of DeWolf’s volume deals with the practical application of these General Principles to such concerns as ecology, the family, technological advance, the state, and international relations. This section is helpful for the reader who wants a general survey of the issues that have been of concern to Christian ethicists. The advanced reader will discover this material laborious, since many of the more technical questions are bypassed.
Certainly this work ought to be a useful guide for both pastor and layman. It sets forth helpful guidelines for moral decision-making, and then tests these guidelines in specific problems. However, the book does have certain limitations. A number of these are spelled out by the author in the preface, and the reader will be sympathetic to these. But certain other inadequacies are difficult to excuse.
First of all, while DeWolf’s approach may be correct, he fails to take into account the breadth and scope of modern developments in both moral philosophy and Christian ethics. Most of his book could probably have been written ten or even fifteen years ago. For instance, DeWolf neglects the contributions of John Rawls, William Frankena, David Lyons, Russell Grice, R. W. Beardsmore, Allen Gewirth, Stephin Toulmin, Marcus Singer, Kurt Baier, and numerous others who might have been of help in the formulation of his position.
It seems as if the author is unaware of some of the more elementary formulations in moral philosophy. For instance his classification scheme glosses over the important distinction between theories of obligation and theories of value (see Frankena’s Ethics).
DeWolf has neglected one of the more important problems involved in formulating moral principles: the radical conflict that can arise between two or more of principles. It would not be difficult to construct a specific case in which the principle of personal conscience, which compels a person always to tell the truth, might oppose the principle of willing the best possible set of values in the total situation. Suppose a madman asked me the whereabouts of a hidden weapon. If I were to tell the truth, the worst possible set of values might prevail in the total situation. Thus to apply the one principle, I will have to suspend or override the other. DeWolf attempts to deal with this problem by positing the regulative principle, “Every one of these principles must be understood in accord with the demands of every other.” Yet this is not enough. Here the concept of prima facie duties and obligations might be helpful.
A more glaring inadequacy of this book lies in the sections dealing with the biblical and theological material. Although DeWolf is to be commended for including biblical parallels to the General Principles that he sets forth, he dismisses in one sentence the whole range of interesting hermeneutical questions that arise. With the recent emphasis upon hermeneutical theology, a work that claims to be a comprehensive treatment of Christian ethics can hardly bypass the hermeneutical issues entailed. Furthermore, a modern work in Christian ethics ought not to ignore the insights of Pannenberg, or Moltmann, or Shaull. DeWolf promised that the footnotes would give the reader a range of works that deal with the subjects in greater detail. However, the references are few and in many cases unrepresentative. There is no reference to Thielicke’s Theological Ethics, nor to the works of James Sellars or James Gustafson, to name only a few. Certainly DeWolf did not intend his book to be a comprehensive survey. But he does claim a comprehensive treatment, and so he ought to reflect modern developments.
Even though Responsible Freedom was for the most part disappointing, certain sections were illuminating and stimulating. By applying the insights of moral philosophy to Christian ethics, one enlarges one’s perspective. For example, one may bring the philosophical criticism against utilitarianism to bear upon Fletcher’s “agapeic calculous.”
I am not sure, however, that the Christian ethicist is able to construct a system as neat as DeWolf’s. Nor does it do justice to either faith or reason to conceive of their relation as one simply of coherence; i.e., faith paralleling reason, being simply a supplement of it. Rather, faith is the depth of reason and, being its depth, sets its limits. However, rationality is the basis of faith; it is that which precedes faith, and tests the truth-claims and trustworthiness of the authority in question. Christian decision-making should always entail biblical insights that rest upon good reasons.
Winsome Warrior
A Foreign Devil in China, by John Pollock (Zondervan, 1971, 251 pp., $5.95, $1.45), is reviewed by C. Darby Fulton, Nashville, Tennessee.
This is a fascinating portrait of L. Nelson Bell, physician, missionary, and Christian journalist, who was described by his renowned son-in-law Billy Graham as “by far the most unforgettable Christian I have ever known.”
Nelson Bell, born in 1894, earned his medical degree from the Medical College of Virginia in 1916. In June of that year he married Virginia Leftwich, his high-school sweetheart, and in December they began their work in China as medical missionaries.
John Pollock devotes the larger part of his biography to the China years. It was a time of great confusion: civil wars, with rival war-lords ravaging the country; the Communist uprising of 1927; student unrest, culminating in the Shanghai Incident of 1931; the Japanese invasion following Marco Polo Bridge; and the gathering storm of World War II. The Bell family lived amid dangers from bandits, stampeding mobs, stray bullets and crossfire, looting, famine, bombings, depression, and disease. In days of crisis Dr. Bell’s great faith rose to give him courage and confidence. The storm raged outside, but in his heart were peace and trust.
The hospital at Tsingkiangpu flourished under Dr. Bell’s direction. The maimed and halt, the wounded, broken, and sightless, flocked into the compound at all hours, and each sufferer found loving care, skilled medical help, and hope. Patients numbered 100,000 a year. The 350 beds were always full. Operations reached an annual count of 10,000. It became the largest hospital run by a single denomination in China and the foremost medical project of the Presbyterian Church at home or abroad. Its kala-azar (black fever) clinic gained worldwide acclaim.
This ministry to human suffering was undergirded by a pervading Gospel witness. Dr. Bell saw the patient as in need not only of bodily healing but also of the grace of God in Christ. He was happy to say, “Arise, take up thy bed and walk,” but longed to add, “My son, thy sins be forgiven thee.” He prayed at the bedside of patients and in the operating room. Many came to know their Saviour through his testimony. Often he led the daily chapel services himself. Fluent in Chinese, the doctor was one of the best preachers in the mission.
Pollock gives us a group picture. The doctor is the central figure, but he fits with his gracious wife and his four children into one delightful portrait of a near-perfect Christian family. The Bell home was an altogether charming place, a center of gracious living, fun, fellowship, hospitality, faith, and praise. The local missionary community liked nothing better than to gather at the Bell house, whether for pranks or for prayer, and when the laughter had subsided and the last hymn had been sung, to return to their homes under the spell of the quiet benediction and the sense of the presence of God.
The author makes skillful use of what he calls his “gold mine,” a remarkable collection of nearly 900 letters written by Dr. Bell to his mother in Virginia during the China years. This gives the story an autobiographical quality.
Forced out of China in 1941, Dr. Bell returned to America, and the last chapters of the book cover his life during the past thirty years. Many would regard these years as the most fruitful of his life. Entering private medical practice in Asheville, North Carolina, he soon established a reputation of professional excellence. He also rose rapidly to leadership as a churchman and became one of the most influential editors and writers in the evangelical world. He is one of the founders of the Presbyterian Journal, and he helped organize and eventually became executive editor of CHRISTIANITY TODAY, to which he contributes a widely read column. He has enjoyed the confidence of Presidents and men of high estate, as well as the friendship of the poor.
What a story of versatility and excellence! Professional baseball player, doctor, missionary, statesman, linguist, avid student and teacher of the Bible, humanitarian, administrator, churchman, lecturer, Christian journalist, preacher—and, above all, dedicated and winsome Christian!
This Rocky Pool
Ecology: Crisis and New Vision, edited by Richard E. Sherrell (John Knox, 1971, paperback, $3.45), is reviewed by John H. Paterson, senior lecturer in geography, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.
There have been so many books on ecology lately that the most realistic comment so far may have been that of a New Yorker cartoonist who showed an average, baseball-watching TV viewer gazing in disgust at his screen and moaning, “Not ecology again!” Considering that, ten years ago, most people would have had to consult a dictionary to find out what ecology is, the cartoon enshrines the truth that, for all its newness, ecology is already a bore. This is probably because, important as the issue is, we all now know it is important. The “new vision” named in the subtitle of the present book is precisely what we do not have.
This book certainly supplies some. It does so without being a particularly Christian book, but, to do it justice, neither its title nor its editor proclaims that it is. For instance, the longest and much the most stimulating essay in it offers a Taoist view of the environment, a view that may well be genuinely fresh to Westerners, but that renders Christianity not so much wrong as unnecessary. There are nine essays in the book and they vary considerably, from well-footnoted science to pure speculation; they reflect the different backgrounds of the eight writers (five clergy, two professors, and one exphysicist). Some of the authors write badly (“… one finds oneself one with oneself and one with all there is”), but all write with conviction.
The editor has worked from the premise that “the ecological crisis is too important to leave to the ecologists.” This is a fine, challenging start, and no one can pretend that the professionals themselves have created much “new vision.” But let us be reasonable: why should they? Ecology was originally a narrow field of detailed study—a sub-department of a department, biology. Nowadays, we are apt to want the ecologist to be Superman, creating cosmic vision and solving life’s deepest problems while still keeping an eye on those bacteria. But this may merely lead to the production of a thinly spread quasi-expertise. (I am a geographer, an area in which the problem is the same, and I know.) It also observably leads to more than a fair share of enthusiasts and propagandists for the field of ecology and one thing no editor needs to do is to encourage any more to jump into the pool; it is full of rocks anyway.
Ecological problems are desperately important and difficult to solve. They are, on the other hand, quite simply stated. There is the technical problem: that is for the scientists. There is the problem of making us all good citizens of the planet: that, by and large, is for the citizens. And then for the Christian there is the problem of where and how, when God told man to have dominion over the earth and subdue it (the one Bible verse quoted by nearly all the present eight contributors), we went wrong. Are we Christians really responsible for the cosmic mess? It is broadly hinted that we are. We had better concentrate our own search for new vision right here.
Newly Published
This Cup, by Addison H. Leitch (Baker, 87 pp., $2.95). A theology professor at Gordon-Conwell Seminary (who contributes regularly to CHRISTIANITY TODAY) shares some thoughts especially appropriate for Lenten reading.
I Will Build My Church, by Alfred F. Kuen (Moody, 366 pp., $6.95). Not a polished book, but an excellent compendium of the biblical data and a marshalling of opinion through the centuries to prove that church membership is intended for apparent believers only. Extensive references to a variety of writers make this a useful book for beginning serious study of ecclesiology.
God on Broadway, by Jerome Ellison (John Knox, 96 pp., paperback, $2.45). The history of religion and Jung’s depth psychology provide the basis for this interesting, stimulating, and timely discussion.
Ethics in a Permissive Society, by William Barclay (Harper & Row, 223 pp., $4.95). The text of televised lectures offers the virtue of clarity along with a forthright and undiluted presentation of biblical imperatives.
The God of Science, by Frederick E. Trinklein (Eerdmans, 192 pp., paperback, $3.45). An excellent discussion of such matters as “Defining God” and “Speaking of Miracles” (the two most controversial chapters) by thirty-eight scientists.
On Bumping Into God, by Kenneth F. Hall (Warner, 127 pp., paperback, $2.50). A study guide to help people understand how God reveals himself to us. The questions at each chapter’s end generally stimulate and provoke.
The Jewish Religion in the Soviet Union, by Joshua Rothenberg (KTAV, 242 pp., $10). An authoritative, well-documented study.
Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William Foxwell Albright, edited by Hans Goedicke (Johns Hopkins, 474 pp., $15). Thirty-four scholars from five continents contribute essays that pay fitting tribute to the late great archaeologist. Hebrew grammar, biblical exegesis (e.g., Isaiah 53; John 5:1; Isaiah 6:1; Psalm 137), and ancient history are among the fields in which essays are written.
Liberation in Middle America, by Gabriel J. Fackre (Pilgrim, 125 pp., $4.95). Focusing on the blue-collar crowd (the new “minority” group), the author tries to tell the Church how to advance their liberation.
A Symposium on Creation III, edited by Donald W. Patten (Baker, 150 pp., paperback, $2.95). Eight technical articles, including ‘The Alleged Evolution of the Horse” and “Fossil Man.” Third in a series.
The Church and Revolution, by François Houtart and André Rousseau (Orbis, 371 pp., paperback, $3.95). A thorough sociological study of the history of revolution (beginning with the French version) as it affected the Roman Catholic Church.
Communes: Their Goals, Hopes, Problems, by George R. Fitzgerald (Paulist, 214 pp., paperback, $1.95). A thorough survey of religious communes, both Protestant and Catholic, especially helpful as research material. The author presents both sides of the commune question.
As Others See Us, by Irving Sussman (Sheed and Ward, 266 pp., $7.50). Summaries, with some interpretation, of the plots of famous novels in which much of the action focuses on priest, minister, or rabbi. The author considers such disparate works as Barchester Towers, Herzog, The Canterbury Tales, The Brothers Karamazov, and The Power and the Glory.
Christian Philosophy of Education, by N. H. Beversluis (National Union of Christian Schools, 79 pp., paperback, $1.75). Written largely by and for members of the Christian Reformed Church but of value to Christian elementary and secondary educators generally.
The Great Awakening and the American Revolution: Colonial Thought in the Eighteenth Century, by Cedric B. Cowing (Rand McNally, 260 pp., paperback, $2.95). A very good overview of the role of various religious views in the founding of the nation. Contains an excellent bibliographical guide for further study.
The Lord’s Day: A Theological Guide to the Christian Day of Worship, by Paul K. Jewett (Eerdmans, 174 pp., paperback, $2.95). A much needed study of the Jewish Sabbath and its partial replacement by the first day. Offers both theology and guides for practical observance of the Lord’s Day.
Beginning Now, by John B. Davies (Fortress, 285 pp., $5.95). This extended theological and literary commentary on Genesis 1–3 presupposes the discredited documentary hypothesis and interprets our first parents symbolically, not historically. Nevertheless, it contain a number of useful theological insights.
Death Education: Preparation for Living, edited by Betty R. Green and Donald P. Irish (Schenkman, 143 pp.). A stimulating, important symposium that should be read by ministers, teachers, medical personnel—all who work professionally with people. All the essays are fine (John P. Branter’s is the best), the discussion section particularly helpful.
The Abbreviated Bible, by James Leslie McCary and Mark McElhaney (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 695 pp., $10.95, $6.95). About one-fourth as long as the full text.
